Taq Polymerase - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics Because DNA polymerases can help cancer cells tolerate DNA damage, some of these enzymes might be viable targets for therapeutic strategies. Daee, D. L., Mertz, T. M. & Shcherbakova, P. V. A cancer-associated DNA polymerase delta variant modeled in yeast causes a catastrophic increase in genomic instability. Natl Acad. 70, 27702778 (2010). DNA polymerases and cancer | Nature Reviews Cancer Figure 5 shows the number of lagging-strand mutant positions that can be found clustered with a distance between each other of 8nt. Mutational footprinting has allowed us to follow the switch from pol I to pol III replication during leading-strand synthesis and even RNA processing by pol I on the lagging strand, which is restricted to very short sequences. Jarosz, D. F., Godoy, V. G., Delaney, J. C., Essigmann, J. M. & Walker, G. C. A single amino acid governs enhanced activity of DinB DNA polymerases on damaged templates. Chem. Tel: +831 459 5396 ; Fax: +831 459 3524; Email: Modulation of ColE1-like plasmid replication for recombinant gene expression, Replication and control of circular bacterial plasmids, Control of ColE1 plasmid replication by antisense RNA, Back to basics: pBR322 and protein expression systems in E. coli, Roles of phi X174 type primosome- and G4 type primase-dependent primings in initiation of lagging and leading strand syntheses of DNA replication, DnaA- and PriA-dependent primosomes: two distinct replication complexes for replication of Escherichia coli chromosome, Discontinuous replication of colicin E1 plasmid DNA in a cell extract containing thermolabile DNA ligase. Spatial organisation of NDP52 in the nucleus. J. 510, 7180 (2002). Translesion synthesis: Y-family polymerases and the polymerase switch. During PCR amplification, Mg2+ ion binds to a dNTP at its alpha phosphate group and facilitates the removal of beta and gamma phosphates. NDP52-FL, CoCoA and CNDP52 interactomes from HeLa nuclear extract. Mol. J. Biol. Xeroderma pigmentosum-variant patients from America, Europe, and Asia. A control mechanism to verify whether each phase of the cell cycle has been completed accurately. We next looked to see whether the marker mutations for lagging-strand synthesis described could identify a footprint for Okazaki processing (OP) sites. USA 107, 1339013395 (2010). Myosin VI regulates the spatial organisation of mammalian transcription initiation. J. Therefore each iterative cycle of mutagenesis should increase the differential between frequencies of leading- versus lagging-strand replication. Our method of pol I mutagenesis in vivo in liquid culture has been described in detail ( 21 ), and the generation of our libraries is described in the Materials and Methods section. Curr. Proc. (TDT). Many point mutations that occur in cancer cells arise from the error-generating activities of DNA polymerases. Bookshelf Strikingly, marker lagging-strand mutations are consistently overrepresented at distances >800 (compare Figure 4 a and c), consistent with our proposed use for these mutations as indicators of strand specificity. Molecules 14, 102121 (2009). histone modifiers), to cause local changes to chromatin structure. Minko, I. G. et al. Mullis and Michael Smith won the Nobel Prize, The enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase, involved in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, cant work without its cofactors, which include TPP, FAD, NAD. Vaisman, A. et al. 38, 32333244 (2010). References 21 and 22 provide a structural explanation for the efficient and error-avoiding bypass activity of Pol for a CPD. DNA polymerase is one of the enzymes responsible for the replication of DNA. Proc. In all cases, hotspot mutations further increase the observed asymmetry ( Figure 4 b), consistent with the idea that hotspot mutations are facilitated errors that the polymerase is already prone to making ( 27 ). Anti-tumor effects of dehydroaltenusin, a specific inhibitor of mammalian DNA polymerase alpha. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M111.223610. Human cancers express a mutator phenotype. Cancer Res. There is no question about the source of mutations in our system because the frequency of ColE1 plasmid mutation in vivo correlates directly with the fidelity of individual error-prone pol I alleles expressed ( 19 ). & West, S. C. DNA repair synthesis facilitates RAD52-mediated second-end capture during DSB repair. N-terminal alanine-rich (NTAR) sequences drive precise start codon selection resulting in elevated translation of multiple proteins including ERK1/2, Structural basis for specific DNA sequence motif recognition by the TFAP2 transcription factors, Archaeal Hel308 suppresses recombination through a catalytic switch that controls DNA annealing, Cell-free transcription-translation system: a dual read-out assay to characterize riboswitch function, RNA polymerase common subunit ZmRPABC5b is transcriptionally activated by Opaque2 and essential for endosperm development in maize, Chemical Biology and Nucleic Acid Chemistry, Gene Regulation, Chromatin and Epigenetics, Receive exclusive offers and updates from Oxford Academic, Targeting DNA polymerase to DNA double-strand breaks reduces DNA deletion size and increases templated insertions generated by CRISPR/Cas9, Minidumbbell structures formed by ATTCT pentanucleotide repeats in spinocerebellar ataxia type10, Che-1/AATF binds to RNA polymerase I machinery and sustains ribosomal RNA gene transcription, Metabolic cofactors NADH and FAD act as non-canonical initiating substrates for a primase and affect replication primer processing. This size is significantly larger than the 111nt reported by Kitani et al . DNA Polymerase I - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics & Koyama, H. Neonatal lethality with abnormal neurogenesis in mice deficient in DNA polymerase beta. Cancer Res. Jansen, J. G. et al. USA 99, 37643769 (2002). Polymerase chain reaction ( PCR) is a common laboratory technique used to make many copies (millions or billions!) 8600 Rockville Pike Assembles immunoglobulin and T cell receptor genes from different segments. Speed and precision of DNA replication (video) | Khan Academy CAS Fig. Disclaimer. Polk mutant mice have a spontaneous mutator phenotype. Article This observation agrees with reports showing that pol III is essential for completion of ColE1 plasmid replication ( 38 ) and supports our use of marker mutations to identify strand preferences in replication. It agrees, however, with another study of ColE1 plasmid replication in vivo showing that inhibition of primosome assembly through a dnaT mutation or by treatment with anti-dnaT antibodies results in 0.51kb-long early replication intermediates ( 13 ). 9, 594604 (2008). Irrespective of the different types of PCR, all of them involve three basic stages: The reagents required to run a PCR assay include a DNA template (it can be genomic DNA, plasmid, or cDNA), DNA polymerase enzymes, primers, dNTPs (dATP, dGTP, dCTP, dTTP), and PCR buffers, which include tris-HCL, KCL, and MgCl2. Error-prone translesion replication of damaged DNA suppresses skin carcinogenesis by controlling inflammatory hyperplasia. This process was iterated until the desired mutation frequency was reached. Gene editing with 'pencil' rather than 'scissors' in human pluripotent stem cells. The results, presented in Figure 2 , show a consistent decrease in pol I mutation frequency as replication proceeds along the plasmid sequence. Involvement of mouse Rev3 in tolerance of endogenous and exogenous DNA damage. PriA-dependent initiation represents a distinct form of DNA replication initiation, typically associated with DNA repair. Nat Rev Cancer 11, 96110 (2011). hTK library complementary mutation pairs: frequency and significance of bias. Describes an example of an assay for a small-molecule inhibitor and reports nanomolar inhibitors of Pol and Pol . Dumstorf, C. A., Mukhopadhyay, S., Krishnan, E., Haribabu, B. Rattray, A. J., Shafer, B. K., McGill, C. B. At this point individual plasmids were sequenced. Gastrointestinal hyperplasia with altered expression of DNA polymerase beta. Mgcl 2 helps in the binding of primers at specific locations by influencing the primer melting temperature (Tm). Science Biology Question What is the role of DNA polymerase in DNA replication? Potentiation of temozolomide cytotoxicity by inhibition of DNA polymerase beta is accentuated by BRCA2 mutation. The value we obtained is probably moderately under-estimated because the limits are defined by stochastic events (mutations), so our best guess is that OP sites are 20nt in length. Dermatol. While we used proximity between lagging-strand mutations to identify these sites, we did not assume any particular size. Abdulovic, A. L. & Jinks-Robertson, S. The in vivo characterization of translesion synthesis across UV-induced lesions in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: insights into Pol. Fig. DNA Repair (Amst) 6, 891899 (2007). & Wood, R. DNA polymerases and cancer. Its involved in enhancing the catalytic activity of Taq DNA polymerase and facilitating primer binding. Doles, J. et al. Translesion synthesis past acrolein-derived DNA adduct, gamma -hydroxypropanodeoxyguanosine, by yeast and human DNA polymerase eta. The mutagenesis procedure in liquid culture described above was repeated to increase the mutation frequency as described in detail in ref. J. Cell Biol. 7, 19731983 (2009). Individual plasmids were identified through transformation of a small amount of plasmid DNA (50100ng) into a strain that is WT for pol I, DH10beta (hTK) or BL21 (pGFPuv). Natl Acad. Nucleic Acids Res. A real-time fluorescence method for enzymatic characterization of specialized human DNA polymerases. No evidence for local increase in error rate: a local increase in polymerase error rate typically results in multiple hits in one or a few (two to three) adjacent positions, such as we saw in the hTK hotspots ( Supplementary Figure S2 ) or as previously reported for the lacI reporter gene ( 34 ). Localization of the deoxyribose phosphate lyase active site in human DNA polymerase iota by controlled proteolysis. ColE1 plasmids constitute a class of plasmids that share regulatory mechanisms of replication [reviewed in refs. DNA polymerase kappa, implicated in spontaneous and DNA damage-induced mutagenesis, is overexpressed in lung cancer. Following PriA-primosome assembly, DnaB helicase and DnaG primase work coordinately to initiate lagging-strand synthesis. DNA Polymerase II: Structure and Biochemical Functions. Google Scholar. Natl Acad. 18, 162173 (2007). Biochem. Chem. Proc. Cancer Res. Sci. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (article) | Khan Academy MgCl2 (Magnesium chloride) is an essential ingredient of the PCR master mix. Haploinsufficiency in DNA polymerase beta increases cancer risk with age and alters mortality rate. Immunodetection of DNA repair endonuclease ERCC1-XPF in human tissue. Rev. DNA Polymerases: Structural Diversity and Common Mechanisms* J. Biol. Clin. 10, 12171220 (2000). Nonsense mutations cause protein truncation and often nonsense-mediated decay of the encoding mRNA. 33, 12801289 (2005). Jansen, J. G. et al. Cancer Res. The TATA box plays a role much like that of the . In these plasmids, replication is controlled by a 600bp-long sequence known as plasmid origin of replication or ori ( 1 , 3 ). B-family DNA polymerases show similarity to E. coli Pol II. Since the use of Taq DNA polymerase . The specific location of the OP sites varies between the two libraries, with the exception of the site closest to the ssiA site at positions 352373 ( Figure 5 ), which is in an area of sequence shared between the two libraries. DNA polymerase I (or Pol I) is an enzyme that participates in the process of prokaryotic DNA replication. ColE1 plasmids used for library generation. 22, 16541664 (2003). 69, 62906298 (2009). DNA polymerases are a group of enzymes required for DNA synthesis. Several studies involving this isolated enzyme indicated that DNA pol I was most likely involved in repair replication and was not the main replicative polymerase. Overexpression of POLQ confers a poor prognosis in early breast cancer patients. Nucleic Acids Res. Yamamoto, J. et al. The x -axis is the distance (in nucleotides) from the ori RNA/DNA switch. A role for polymerase eta in the cellular tolerance to cisplatin-induced damage. DNA proofreading and repair (article) | Khan Academy In this article, you will learn what the role of MgCl2 in PCR reaction is, how it facilitates the process, and how varying its concentration may disturb your reactions. Ed Engl. Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. The eukaryotic sliding clamp PCNA binds to DNA polymerases and is crucial for the switching of polymerases during TLS and DNA repair. Genetics 172, 14871498 (2006). To illustrate the structural mechanism for Pol coordinating polymerase (pol) and exonuclease (exo) activities to ensure rapid and a Delbos, F., Aoufouchi, S., Faili, A., Weill, J. C. & Reynaud, C. A. DNA polymerase eta is the sole contributor of A/T modifications during immunoglobulin gene hypermutation in the mouse. Johnson, R. E., Haracska, L., Prakash, S. & Prakash, L. Role of DNA polymerase zeta in the bypass of a (64) TT photoproduct. Ohashi, E. et al. Sci. A screen showing that POLQ expression is enhanced in breast cancer samples compared with normal tissue. ColE1 ori sequences encode an RNA primer that is processed by RNAseH and extended by DNA polymerase I (pol I). Nature 465, 951955 (2010). primase | Learn Science at Scitable - Nature 275, 74477450 (2000). Gu, H., Marth, J. D., Orban, P. C., Mossmann, H. & Rajewsky, K. Deletion of a DNA polymerase gene segment in T cells using cell type-specific gene targeting. Some of our leasing solution benefits include: Dont have the budget to purchase lab equipment outright? 22, 66216630 (2003). A discussion of how a replicative DNA polymerase balances high fidelity at the expense of bypass activity. Conversely, interactions with transcription factors/coactivators and transcription machinery could also modulate transcription activity of genes. Curr. Cell Biol. Nature 311, 752755 (1984). Cancer Res. Cell 37, 714727 (2010). Ser. on the degree of strand preference). DNA Repair (Amst) 9, 754764 (2010). 206, 477490 (2009). DNA polymerase I - Wikipedia In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles The most frequent UV radiation-induced DNA lesion, formed by the covalent linkage of the C5 and C6 bonds of adjacent pyrimidines to form a cyclobutane ring, without directly altering the base pairing faces of the dimerized bases. doi: 10.1242/jcs.007005. How DNA Polymerase and RNA Primase Initiate DNA Replication By doing so, you can redirect your capital to breakthrough research. Even though pol I was the first polymerase to be discovered, some questions regarding its function in vivo remain. Kumamoto-Yonezawa, Y. et al. Biol. 201, 11911196 (2005). Med. Fili N, Hari-Gupta Y, Dos Santos , Cook A, Poland S, Ameer-Beg SM, Parsons M, Toseland CP. Dumstorf, C. A. et al. A human DNA polymerase eta complex containing Rad18, Rad6 and Rev1; proteomic analysis and targeting of the complex to the chromatin-bound fraction of cells undergoing replication fork arrest. Mutant positions are highlighted in bold black on a grayed out sequence. Decomposition of a chemical compound or a molecular bond by reaction with water. Total number of mutations: proximal ( n <800): 253; distal ( n >800)=133. Regardless of the origin of these additional nucleotides, our data indicate that Okazaki fragment processing by pol I is very limited, in agreement with a recent report estimating the contribution of pol I to chromosomal replication at 2% ( 40 ). Overrepresentation of marker lagging-strand mutations within putative OP sites. Mol. All statistical analyses were performed using the R statistical computing package (R-foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria, 2009). These mutations are listed in Supplementary Table S4 , by position relative to RNA/DNA switch. However, whats an adequate amount of magnesium chloride refer to? McIlwraith, M. J. & Sugimoto, K. ATR homolog Mec1 controls association of DNA polymerase zeta-Rev1 complex with regions near a double-strand break. Leme, F. et al. Lagging-strand synthesis by pol I should be associated with processing of RNA primers, which is expected to happen at regular sequence intervals regardless of distance from RNA/DNA switch. The polA12 mutation, Conditional lethality of the recA441 and recA730 mutants of Escherichia coli deficient in DNA polymerase I, In vivo mutagenesis by Escherichia coli DNA polymerase I. Ile(709) in motif A functions in base selection, Molecularly evolved thymidylate synthase inhibits 5-fluorodeoxyuridine toxicity in human hematopoietic cells, Mutagenesis and functional selection protocols for directed evolution of proteins in, Rolling circle amplification for sequencing templates, The effects of population bottlenecks on clonal interference, and the adaptation effective population size, The origin of replication of plasmid p15A and comparative studies on the nucleotide sequences around the origin of related plasmids, Identification of ColE1 DNA sequences that direct single strand-to-double strand conversion by a phi X174 type mechanism, Identification of two Escherichia coli factor Y effector sites near the origins of replication of the plasmids (ColE1 and pBR322, Origins of spontaneous mutations: specificity and directionality of base-substitution, frameshift, and sequence-substitution mutageneses, Specificity of recognition sequence for Escherichia coli primase, Y-family DNA polymerases in Escherichia coli, The spectra of point mutations in vertebrate genomes, The fidelity of DNA synthesis catalyzed by derivatives of Escherichia coli DNA polymerase I, A mutant of DNA polymerase I (Klenow fragment) with reduced fidelity, Highly tolerated amino acid substitutions increase the fidelity of Escherichia coli DNA polymerase I, Spontaneous mutation in the Escherichia coli lacI gene, The extreme mutator effect of Escherichia coli mutD5 results from saturation of mismatch repair by excessive DNA replication errors, Mutation as a stress response and the regulation of evolvability, Role of Escherichia coli DNA polymerase I in conferring viability upon the dnaN159 mutant strain, Replication of small plasmids in extracts of Escherichia coli: requirement for both DNA polymerases I and II, Evidence that discontinuous DNA replication in Escherichia coli is primed by approximately 10 to 12 residues of RNA starting with a purine, Role of Escherichia coli DNA polymerase I in chromosomal DNA replication fidelity, The complete genome sequence of Escherichia coli K-12, Mechanism of DNA chain growth. High fidelity and lesion bypass capability of human DNA polymerase delta. Auclair, Y., Rouget, R., Belisle, J. M., Costantino, S. & Drobetsky, E. A. In order to obtain new insights into the function of pol I in the cell, we compiled a database of pol I mutations. RNA polymerase binds to a sequence of DNA called the promoter, found near the beginning of a gene. Biochemistry 48, 1181711824 (2009). High-efficiency bypass of DNA damage by human DNA polymerase Q. EMBO J. 19, 31003109 (2000). Efficiency, fidelity and enzymatic switching during translesion DNA synthesis. 24, 94709477 (2004). 28, 313314 (2009). Biol. 71, 133163 (2002). Mol. Int. Natl Acad. PLoS Genet. Mol. Chem. Mutations in DNA polymerase eta are not detected in squamous cell carcinoma of the skin. Ohkumo, T. et al. J. Biol. Lin, Q. et al. For mutagenesis, an aliquot of the overnight culture (dilution factor 1:10 3 to 1:10 5 ) was transferred into 4ml of 2XYT media (pre-warmed at 37C), and grown shaking at 37C for 1 or 3 days to reach complete saturation or hypersaturation ( 21 ) (hypersaturated cultures denoted as Day 3 in Table 1 ). Table 1 shows the number of clones (transformant colonies) analyzed, nucleotides sequenced, and mutations identified for each library; the sequence coverage is graphically displayed in Figure 1 : it starts 5 of the DNA/RNA switch and extends to >1kb 3 of it ( Figure 1 ). Daigaku, Y., Davies, A. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc2998. Low fidelity pol I mutations may admittedly have pleiotropic effects such as altering the processivity of the polymerase, its efficiency to exchange with other polymerases, or its nick-translation activity. Res. J. Exp. Sweasy, J. USA 107, 1411614121 (2010). POLQ up-regulation is associated with poor survival in breast cancer, perturbs DNA replication and promotes genetic instability Proc. The absence of any significant functional selection allowed the generation of an accurate spectrum of mutations in vivo , and (even more importantly) of accurate data on the physical distribution of mutations along the plasmid sequence. Limited clonal expansions would suggest either a mild positive selection for specific mutations or a stronger selective pressure combined with significant clonal interference ( 23 ). Investigating the role of the little finger domain of Y-family DNA polymerases in low fidelity synthesis and translesion replication. 27, 44684475 (1999). Roos, W. P. et al. Adv. O-Wang, J. et al. However, polymerases are active over a broad temperature range ( Gelfand and White 1990). neutral sequence. Sequence coverage (double-headed arrows), and directionality of replication and of sequencing (solid arrow) are also shown. Natl Acad. National Library of Medicine Arthur Kornberg purified and characterized DNA polymerase from E.coli for the first time. Replication through an abasic DNA lesion: structural basis for adenine selectivity. Results from the hTK library, showing all six complementary pairs of point mutations, listing the most frequent mutation of the pair first. & Monnat, R. J., Jr. DNA polymerases and human disease. 1997, Wagner and Nohmi 2000). NDP52 binds to and oligomerises with double-stranded DNA through its C-terminal domain. Thus, the enzyme is vital for passing on genetic information and maintaining its integrity. Get what matters in cancer research, free to your inbox weekly. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! . Damage can be caused by reactions that disrupt bonds in the nucleobases, the deoxyribose sugar ring, or the phosphate groups of DNA or by the addition of chemical moieties such as hydroxyl groups, methyl groups, or even bulkier groups derived from polycyclic molecules. to its ability to degrade RNA or DNA in the 5 to 3 direction while simultaneously extending it in the 5 to 3 direction ( 14 ). Our final, curated libraries included a total of 393 (hTK) and 244 (GFP) mutations. Takata, K. & Wood, R. D. Bypass specialists work together. The level of enrichment will depend on the strand preference of the polymerase ( Figure 3 b). Values we were unable to calculate due to gaps in our data are indicated as N/A. Kidane, D. et al. Yoshimura, M. et al. PubMed Central Moreover, you must note that too much or too little MgCl2 can also create problems in your reactions. Chem. J. Microbiol Mol. Identification of marker mutations for lagging-strand replication. A 'DNA replication' signature of progression and negative outcome in colorectal cancer. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Nature Reviews Cancer (Nat Rev Cancer) hREV3 is essential for error-prone translesion synthesis past UV or benzo[a]pyrene diol epoxide-induced DNA lesions in human fibroblasts. the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in This analysis also shows a distal enrichment for TG mutations, making this mutation an additional marker for lagging-strand synthesis ( Figure 4 b). . It was discovered by Thomas Kornberg (son of Arthur Kornberg) and Malcolm Gefter in 1970. J. Article Yuasa, M. S. et al. Kohzaki, M. et al. Hari-Gupta Y, Fili N, Dos Santos , Cook AW, Gough RE, Reed HCW, Wang L, Aaron J, Venit T, Wait E, Grosse-Berkenbusch A, Gebhardt JCM, Percipalle P, Chew TL, Martin-Fernandez M, Toseland CP. Nucleic Acids Res. The primosome assembled for initiation of ColE1 plasmid replication is essentially identical to the PriA-dependent replisome recruited to R- or D-loops during DNA repair ( 6 , 16 ). Look at these examples to better understand the role of cofactors: Other than enhancing the DNA polymerase activity, MgCl2 also facilitates the primer binding at specific sites during PCR reaction. Masutani, C. et al. I. Translesion synthesis across the (64) photoproduct and its Dewar valence isomer by the Y-family and engineered DNA polymerases. Genet. To help placing OP sites in a wider sequence context, these sites are also highlighted in Supplementary Figure S1 , which lists the complete sequence of the hTK and pGFPuv plasmids. DNA polymerase also plays a role in repairing damaged DNA. Nucleic Acids Res. Shen, X. et al. Jansen, J. G. et al. 70, 409417 (2010). High incidence of epithelial cancers in mice deficient for DNA polymerase delta proofreading. Mutat. Molecular dynamics of NDP52 in the nucleus. Cell Biol. What Is the Role of MgCl2 in PCR Amplification Reactions? ); Ellison Medical Foundation (AG-NS-0577-09 to J.B.); National Science Foundation (DBI-0845275 to R.K.). EMBO J. Ross, A. L. & Sale, J. E. The catalytic activity of REV1 is employed during immunoglobulin gene diversification in DT40. Cell Cycle 3, 9981001 (2004). GA>>CT). Stages of transcription - Khan Academy Cell 21, 1527 (2006). Scientists have now found five DNA polymerases in E. coli. Nucleic acids are polymers, which are large molecules made up of . Reduction of their activities sensitizes cells, including tumour cells, to DNA-damaging agents. Briefly, the plasmid library recovered from the initial round of mutagenesis was retransformed into fresh JS200 muta-plasmid cells at 30C. J. Biol. Obeid, S. et al. Cell Biol. PubMed Res. For instance, if there is a G in the DNA template, RNA polymerase will add a C to the new, growing RNA strand. ( c ) Enrichment of mutations at distal ( d >800) positions. DNA damage is already plural, so DNA damages is incorrect, an alternative is DNA lesions. I. The sequence of the RNA polymer is complementary to that of the template DNA and is synthesized in a 5' 3 orientation. Multiple functions of DNA polymerases - PMC - National Center for Near-full-length REV3L appears to be a scarce maternal factor in Xenopus laevis eggs that changes qualitatively in early embryonic development. 48, 369378 (2009). Structure and mechanism of human DNA polymerase eta. DNA Repair (Amst) 6, 695711 (2007). Biol. Natl Acad. Natl Acad. Role of DNA polymerases eta, iota and zeta in UV resistance and UV-induced mutagenesis in a human cell line. ISSN 1474-175X (print).

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